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Efficiency vs effectiveness: an analysis of tertiary education across Europe
Ozana Nadoveza Jelić* 
Margareta Gardijan Kedžo*
Margareta Gardijan Kedžo
Affiliation: University of Zagreb, Faculty of Economics and Business, Zagreb, Croatia
 0000-0001-5390-057X
Article | Year: 2018 | Pages: 381 - 414 | Volume: 42 | Issue: 4 Received: June 1, 2018 | Accepted: October 21, 2018 | Published online: December 14, 2018
|
FULL ARTICLE
FIGURES & DATA
REFERENCES
CROSSMARK POLICY
METRICS
LICENCING
PDF
Source: Scheerens, Luyten and van Ravens (2011), adapted by the authors.
|
Label
|
Definition
|
Used in period
|
|
Countries: Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Rep., Denmark, Germany, Estonia,
Ireland, Spain, France, Croatia, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary,
Netherlands, Austria,
Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Finland,
Sweden, UK
|
|
Inputs
|
|
(I)EX2(% GDP)
|
General government expenditure (tertiary education, % GDP)
|
2004-2015
|
|
(I)FA(% EX)
|
Financial aid to students as % of total public expenditure on education,
at tertiary level of education
(ISCED 5 6, %)
|
2004-2012
|
|
(I)S/T
|
Ratio of pupils and students to teachers and
academic staff (tertiary education, levels 5-8)
|
2013-2015
|
|
Outputs
|
|
(O)GRAD(20-29)
|
Tertiary
education graduates, (ISCED 5-6, per 1 000 of population aged 20-29)
|
2004-2012
|
|
(O)GRADT(20-34)
|
Graduates aged 20-34, tertiary education level (% of
corresponding population)
|
2013-2015
|
|
(O)POPT
|
Population aged 15-64 with completed tertiary
education (levels 5-8)
|
2004-2015
|
|
(O)U/UT
|
Unemployment rates (%, 15-64) all ISCED 2011 levels
/ unemployment rates
(%, 15-64) tertiary education (levels 5-8)
|
2004-2015
|
|
Quality indicators of inputs and outputs
|
|
(O)U/UT*ACTT
|
(O)U/UT * Activity rates (%, of 15-64, tertiary
education (levels 5-8))
|
2004-2015
|
|
(O)GDP PC PPS
|
Gross domestic product at market prices, current
prices, purchasing power standard per capita
(% of average)
|
2004-2012
|
|
(O)UR_2016
|
Average overall score, university rankings - The
Higher Education
|
2013-2015
|
|
(I)PISA
|
Underachieving 15-year-old students (%, PISA survey,
an average of all fields)
|
2004-2015
|
Source: (Eurostat (2018b, 2018c, 2018g).
Source: Eurostat (2018d, 2018f, 2018g, 2018h, 2018j).
Source: Eurostat (2018a, 2018e, 2018i, 2018j); Times Higher Education (2017).
|
Period
|
2004-2012
|
2013-2015
|
|
Model
|
Inputs
|
Outputs
|
Inputs
|
Outputs
|
|
Quantity model
|
(I)EX2(% GDP)
(I)FA(% EX)
|
(O)GRAD(20-29)
(O)U/UT
(O)POPT
|
(I)EX2(% GDP)
(I)S/T
|
(O)GRAD(20-34)
(O)U/UT
(O)POPT
|
|
Output – quality model
|
(I)EX2(% GDP)
(I)FA(% EX)
|
(O)GRAD(20-29)
(O)U/UT*ACT
(O)GDPpc
|
(I)EX2(% GDP)
(I)S/T)
|
(O)GRAD(20-34)
(O)U/UT*ACT
(O)UR
|
|
Input – output quality model
|
(I)EX2(% GDP)
(I)FA(% EX)
(I)PISA a
|
(O)GRAD(20-29)
(O)U/UT*ACT
(O)GDPpc
|
(I)EX2(% GDP)
(I)S/T
(I)PISA
|
(O)GRAD(20-34)
(O)U/UT*ACT
(O)UR
|
Source: Authors.
|
Paper
|
Ahec Šonje,
Deskar-Škrbić and Šonje (2018)
|
Toth (2009)
|
Aristovnik and
Obadić (2011)
|
Aubyn et al.
(2009)
|
Yotova and
Stefanova (2017)
|
|
Year
|
2005-2013 (avg)
|
2006
|
1999-2007 (avg)
|
1998-2001
|
2002-2005
|
1998-2001
|
2002-2005
|
1998-2001
|
2002-2005
|
1998-2001
|
2002-2005
|
2012 and 2014
|
|
Model
|
1
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
2
|
3
|
3
|
4
|
4
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
|
No. of EU countries
|
11
|
17
|
22
|
22
|
22
|
25
|
9
|
|
Austria
|
|
|
15
|
|
|
|
13
|
9
|
11
|
9
|
10
|
6
|
9
|
8
|
|
|
|
|
Bulgaria
|
3
|
3
|
1
|
|
|
|
10
|
8
|
10
|
8
|
24
|
20
|
23
|
25
|
6
|
5
|
5
|
|
Belgium
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
21
|
21
|
26
|
25
|
8
|
8
|
7
|
9
|
|
|
|
|
Cyprus
|
|
|
|
37
|
27
|
1
|
1
|
10
|
27
|
23
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Czech
Republic
|
1
|
1
|
11
|
1
|
33
|
7
|
17
|
18
|
|
|
14
|
17
|
22
|
24
|
3
|
3
|
1
|
|
Germany
|
|
|
13
|
|
|
|
15
|
16
|
12
|
10
|
9
|
11
|
10
|
11
|
|
|
|
|
Denmark
|
|
|
1
|
|
|
|
11
|
1
|
9
|
1
|
11
|
10
|
8
|
7
|
|
|
|
|
Estonia
|
8
|
2
|
|
21
|
16
|
19
|
27
|
28
|
17
|
22
|
18
|
15
|
17
|
16
|
7
|
7
|
6
|
|
Greece
|
|
|
18
|
19
|
10
|
31
|
18
|
22
|
28
|
27
|
19
|
24
|
24
|
23
|
|
|
|
|
Spain
|
|
|
1
|
32
|
17
|
34
|
26
|
27
|
20
|
20
|
21
|
18
|
18
|
15
|
|
|
|
|
Finland
|
|
|
12
|
1
|
1
|
20
|
1
|
7
|
1
|
7
|
1
|
7
|
1
|
5
|
|
|
|
|
France
|
|
|
9
|
34
|
24
|
32
|
19
|
17
|
16
|
11
|
12
|
13
|
12
|
14
|
|
|
|
|
Croatia
|
9
|
8
|
|
26
|
32
|
23
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Hungary
|
4
|
7
|
16
|
12
|
28
|
9
|
23
|
23
|
24
|
26
|
23
|
22
|
21
|
22
|
8
|
8
|
8
|
|
Ireland
|
|
|
|
17
|
21
|
14
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
|
|
|
Italy
|
|
|
1
|
18
|
23
|
22
|
12
|
12
|
13
|
14
|
13
|
12
|
13
|
12
|
|
|
|
|
Lithuania
|
1
|
1
|
|
1
|
12
|
1
|
28
|
26
|
21
|
19
|
17
|
16
|
16
|
17
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Latvia
|
1
|
1
|
|
|
|
|
20
|
13
|
23
|
17
|
|
|
|
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
Malta
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
16
|
15
|
19
|
16
|
7
|
9
|
11
|
10
|
|
|
|
|
Netherlands
|
|
|
10
|
|
|
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
5
|
1
|
6
|
|
|
|
|
Poland
|
5
|
1
|
17
|
1
|
22
|
13
|
22
|
20
|
18
|
15
|
16
|
19
|
15
|
18
|
5
|
6
|
4
|
|
Portugal
|
|
|
14
|
|
|
|
25
|
25
|
22
|
21
|
22
|
21
|
20
|
21
|
|
|
|
|
Romania
|
2
|
6
|
|
13
|
35
|
10
|
|
|
1
|
13
|
|
|
|
|
2
|
2
|
2
|
|
Sweden
|
|
|
8
|
23
|
8
|
27
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
|
|
|
Slovenia
|
7
|
5
|
|
1
|
13
|
12
|
9
|
14
|
15
|
18
|
25
|
25
|
25
|
20
|
4
|
4
|
4
|
|
Slovakia
|
6
|
4
|
1
|
1
|
36
|
1
|
24
|
24
|
25
|
24
|
15
|
14
|
19
|
19
|
|
|
|
|
United Kingdom
|
|
|
7
|
22
|
19
|
17
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2004-2006
|
2007-2009
|
2010-2012
|
2013-2015
|
|
1
|
Belgium
|
Belgium
|
Belgium
|
Belgium
|
Ireland-Lithuania
|
|
2
|
Bulgaria
|
Bulgaria
|
Belgium-Czech Rep.-Estonia
-Finland
|
Bulgaria
|
Czech Rep.-Germany-Slovakia-UK
|
|
3
|
Czech Rep.
|
Czech Rep.
|
Czech Rep.
|
Czech Rep.
|
Czech Rep.
|
|
4
|
Denmark
|
Denmark
|
Denmark
|
Ireland-Lithuania-UK
|
Ireland-Lithuania
|
|
5
|
Germany
|
Germany
|
Belgium-Slovakia-Finland
|
Bulgaria-Hungary-Finland-UK
|
Germany
|
|
6
|
Estonia
|
Estonia
|
Estonia
|
Estonia
|
Estonia
|
|
7
|
Ireland
|
Ireland
|
Ireland
|
Ireland
|
Ireland
|
|
8
|
Spain
|
Spain
|
Spain
|
Spain
|
Spain
|
|
9
|
France
|
France
|
France
|
France
|
France
|
|
10
|
Croatia
|
Croatia
|
Czech Rep.-Spain-Croatia
-Poland
|
Czech Rep.-France-Poland
|
Czech Rep.-Lithuania
|
|
11
|
Italy
|
Italy
|
Italy
|
Italy
|
Italy
|
|
12
|
Latvia
|
Latvia
|
Latvia
|
Czech Rep.-France-Lithuania-Poland-Romania
|
Czech Rep.-Germany-Ireland-Lithuania-UK
|
|
13
|
Lithuania
|
Lithuania
|
Lithuania
|
Lithuania
|
Lithuania
|
|
14
|
Hungary
|
Hungary
|
Ireland-Slovakia-Finland
-UK
|
Hungary
|
Hungary
|
|
15
|
Netherlands
|
Netherlands
|
Belgium-Denmark-Finland
|
Ireland-Finland-UK
|
Ireland-Lithuania-
|
|
16
|
Austria
|
Austria
|
Belgium-Slovakia-Finland
|
Bulgaria-Spain-Slovakia-UK
|
Czech Rep.-Spain-Slovakia-UK
|
|
17
|
Poland
|
Poland
|
Poland
|
Poland
|
Lithuania
|
|
18
|
Portugal
|
Portugal
|
Ireland-Lithuania-Poland -Slovakia
|
France-Lithuania-Romania-UK
|
Lithuania-Slovakia
|
|
19
|
Romania
|
Romania
|
Poland-Slovakia
|
Romania
|
Romania
|
|
20
|
Slovenia
|
Slovenia
|
Lithuania-Slovakia-UK
|
Bulgaria-Lithuania-Hungary-UK
|
Ireland-Lithuania
|
|
21
|
Slovakia
|
Slovakia
|
Slovakia
|
Slovakia
|
Slovakia
|
|
22
|
Finland
|
Finland
|
Finland
|
Finland
|
Ireland-Lithuania
|
|
23
|
Sweden
|
Sweden
|
Belgium-Denmark-Finland
|
Ireland-Finland-UK
|
Ireland-Lithuania
|
|
24
|
UK
|
UK
|
UK
|
UK
|
UK
|
Source: Authors.
|
|
|
2004-2006
|
2007-2009
|
2010-2012
|
2013-2015
|
|
1
|
Belgium
|
Ireland-Italy-Slovakia-UK
|
Ireland-France-Lithuania-Slovakia-UK
|
Czech Rep.-Germany-Ireland-Austria
|
Germany-Netherlands-UK
|
|
2
|
Bulgaria
|
Czech Rep.-Latvia-Lithuania-Slovakia
|
Czech Rep.-Slovakia
|
Czech Rep.-Germany-Slovakia-
|
Germany-Lithuania-Slovakia-Sweden-
|
|
3
|
Czech Rep.
|
Czech Rep.
|
Czech Rep.
|
Czech Rep.
|
Lithuania-Hungary-UK
|
|
4
|
Denmark
|
Ireland-Lithuania
|
Ireland-Lithuania
|
Ireland-Lithuania
|
Denmark
|
|
5
|
Germany
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland
|
Germany
|
Germany
|
Germany
|
|
6
|
Estonia
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland-Poland-UK
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland-Lithuania-Romania
|
Czech Rep.-Germany-Ireland-Lithuania
|
Denmark-Lithuania-Netherlands-Sweden
|
|
7
|
Ireland
|
Ireland
|
Ireland
|
Ireland
|
Ireland
|
|
8
|
Spain
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland-France
|
Czech Rep.-France-Austria-Slovakia
|
Czech Rep.-Spain-France-Italy
|
Spain
|
|
9
|
France
|
France
|
France
|
France
|
France
|
|
10
|
Croatia
|
Czech Rep.-Croatia-Poland
|
Czech Rep.-Poland
|
Czech Rep.-Lithuania
|
Denmark-Lithuania-Slovakia-Sweden-
|
|
11
|
Italy
|
Italy
|
Italy
|
Italy
|
Italy-UK
|
|
12
|
Latvia
|
Latvia
|
Czech Rep.-Lithuania-Romania-Slovakia
|
Czech Rep.-Germany-Lithuania
|
Lithuania-Hungary-UK
|
|
13
|
Lithuania
|
Lithuania
|
Lithuania
|
Lithuania
|
Lithuania
|
|
14
|
Hungary
|
Lithuania-Poland-Slovakia-UK
|
Czech Rep.
|
Czech Rep.-Germany
|
Hungary
|
|
15
|
Netherlands
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland
|
Netherlands
|
Netherlands
|
Netherlands-
|
|
16
|
Austria
|
Ireland-Italy-Slovakia-UK
|
Austria
|
Austria
|
Denmark-Netherlands-Sweden-UK
|
|
17
|
Poland
|
Poland
|
Poland
|
Lithuania
|
Denmark-Ireland-Lithuania-UK
|
|
18
|
Portugal
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland-France
|
Ireland-Lithuania-Romania
|
Germany-Ireland-Lithuania
|
Denmark-Lithuania-Slovakia-Sweden-UK
|
|
19
|
Romania
|
Lithuania-Poland-Slovakia
|
Romania
|
Romania
|
Denmark-Spain-Slovakia-UK
|
|
20
|
Slovenia
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland-UK
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland-Lithuania-UK
|
Ireland-Lithuania
|
Denmark-Ireland-Lithuania-UK
|
|
21
|
Slovakia
|
Slovakia
|
Slovakia-
|
Slovakia
|
Slovakia
|
|
22
|
Finland
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland-UK
|
Czech Rep.-Germany-Ireland-Austria
|
Denmark-Lithuania-Netherlands-Sweden
|
|
23
|
Sweden
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland
|
Germany-Ireland-Netherlands
|
Germany-Netherlands-Austria
|
Sweden
|
|
24
|
UK
|
UK
|
UK
|
UK
|
UK
|
|
|
|
2004-2006
|
2007-2009
|
2010-2012
|
2013-2015
|
|
1
|
Belgium
|
Ireland-France-Italy-Slovakia-UK
|
Belgium
|
Czech Rep.-Germany-Ireland-Austria
|
Germany-Netherlands-UK
|
|
2
|
Bulgaria
|
Czech Rep.-Latvia-Lithuania-Slovakia
|
Czech Rep.-Slovakia
|
Czech Rep.-Germany-Slovakia
|
Germany-Lithuania-Slovakia-Sweden
|
|
3
|
Czech Rep.
|
Czech Rep.
|
Czech Rep.
|
Czech Rep.
|
Czech Rep.
|
|
4
|
Denmark
|
Ireland-Lithuania
|
Denmark
|
Ireland-Lithuania
|
Denmark
|
|
5
|
Germany
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland
|
Germany
|
Germany
|
Germany
|
|
6
|
Estonia
|
Estonia
|
Estonia
|
Estonia
|
Estonia
|
|
7
|
Ireland
|
Ireland
|
Ireland
|
Ireland
|
Ireland
|
|
8
|
Spain
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland-France
|
Czech Rep.-Germany-France-Austria-Slovakia
|
Spain
|
Spain
|
|
9
|
France
|
France
|
France
|
France
|
France
|
|
10
|
Croatia
|
Croatia
|
Czech Rep.-Poland
|
Czech Rep.-Lithuania
|
Denmark-Lithuania-Slovakia-Sweden
|
|
11
|
Italy
|
Italy
|
Italy
|
Italy
|
Italy
|
|
12
|
Latvia
|
Latvia
|
Latvia
|
Czech Rep.-Lithuania-Poland-Finland
|
Germany-Ireland-Lithuania-Finland-UK
|
|
13
|
Lithuania
|
Lithuania
|
Lithuania
|
Lithuania
|
Lithuania
|
|
14
|
Hungary
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland-Poland-UK
|
Czech Rep.-Slovakia-Finland
|
Czech Rep.-Germany
|
Hungary
|
|
15
|
Netherlands
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland-Finland
|
Netherlands
|
Netherlands
|
Netherlands
|
|
16
|
Austria
|
Ireland-Italy-Slovakia-UK
|
Austria
|
Austria
|
Denmark-Sweden-UK
|
|
17
|
Poland
|
Poland
|
Poland
|
Poland
|
Poland
|
|
18
|
Portugal
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland-France
|
Ireland-Lithuania-Poland-Romania
|
Germany-Ireland-Lithuania
|
Denmark-Spain-Lithuania-Slovakia-Sweden-UK
|
|
19
|
Romania
|
Lithuania-Poland-Slovakia
|
Romania-
|
Romania
|
Denmark-Spain-Slovakia-UK
|
|
20
|
Slovenia
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland-Poland-Finland
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland-Lithuania-UK
|
Ireland-Lithuania
|
Denmark-Estonia-Ireland-Finland-UK
|
|
21
|
Slovakia
|
Slovakia
|
Slovakia
|
Slovakia
|
Slovakia
|
|
22
|
Finland
|
Finland
|
Finland
|
Finland
|
Finland
|
|
23
|
Sweden
|
Czech Rep.-Ireland
|
Germany-Ireland-Netherlands
|
Germany-Netherlands-Austria
|
Sweden
|
|
24
|
UK
|
UK
|
UK
|
UK
|
UK
|
|
|
|
Quantity
model
|
Output
quality model
|
Input
and output quality model
|
|
|
|
2004-2006
|
2007-2009
|
2010-2012
|
2013-2015
|
2004-2006
|
2007-2009
|
2010-2012
|
2013-2015
|
2004-2006
|
2007-2009
|
2010-2012
|
2013-2015
|
|
1
|
Belgium
|
1
|
1
|
0,954
|
0,905
|
0,94
|
0,973
|
0,929
|
0,989
|
0,961
|
1
|
0,929
|
0,989
|
|
2
|
Bulgaria
|
0,879
|
1
|
0,964
|
1
|
0,707
|
0,879
|
0,864
|
0,986
|
0,707
|
0,879
|
0,864
|
0,986
|
|
3
|
Czech
Rep.
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0,951
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0,98
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
4
|
Denmark
|
1
|
0,932
|
0,912
|
1
|
0,877
|
0,996
|
0,993
|
1
|
0,877
|
1
|
0,993
|
1
|
|
5
|
Germany
|
0,876
|
0,954
|
1
|
1
|
0,93
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0,93
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
6
|
Estonia
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0,931
|
0,77
|
0,837
|
0,739
|
0,748
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
7
|
Ireland
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
8
|
Spain
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0,92
|
0,943
|
1
|
1
|
0,92
|
0,952
|
1
|
1
|
|
9
|
France
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
10
|
Croatia
|
1
|
0,803
|
0,806
|
0,873
|
1
|
0,808
|
0,806
|
0,821
|
1
|
0,808
|
0,806
|
0,821
|
|
11
|
Italy
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
12
|
Latvia
|
1
|
0,943
|
0,905
|
0,857
|
1
|
0,919
|
0,904
|
0,862
|
1
|
1
|
0,955
|
0,924
|
|
13
|
Lithuania
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
14
|
Hungary
|
0,898
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0,811
|
0,847
|
0,879
|
1
|
0,816
|
0,909
|
0,879
|
1
|
|
15
|
Netherlands
|
0,929
|
0,916
|
0,853
|
0,878
|
0,947
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0,957
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
16
|
Austria
|
0,719
|
0,805
|
0,841
|
0,843
|
0,977
|
1
|
1
|
0,9
|
0,977
|
1
|
1
|
0,9
|
|
17
|
Poland
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0,995
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
0,975
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
18
|
Portugal
|
0,591
|
0,628
|
0,679
|
0,725
|
0,742
|
0,713
|
0,74
|
0,733
|
0,742
|
0,713
|
0,74
|
0,737
|
|
19
|
Romania
|
0,768
|
1
|
1
|
0,748
|
0,751
|
1
|
1
|
0,725
|
0,751
|
1
|
1
|
0,725
|
|
20
|
Slovenia
|
0,811
|
0,735
|
0,741
|
0,768
|
0,81
|
0,763
|
0,789
|
0,752
|
0,824
|
0,763
|
0,789
|
0,833
|
|
21
|
Slovakia
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
22
|
Finland
|
1
|
1
|
0,995
|
0,997
|
0,935
|
0,99
|
0,967
|
0,924
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
|
23
|
Sweden
|
0,903
|
0,906
|
0,914
|
1
|
0,908
|
0,969
|
0,98
|
1
|
0,908
|
0,969
|
0,98
|
1
|
|
24
|
UK
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
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December, 2018
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